Social Judgement Theory

Nana is a slide Lion Air accident victims A Few months ago. Now he must go Abroad to perform the duties of his office. But now She Became afraid to use aviation services. Joe (nana's friend) Became confused . Because they want both go together May impose. Joe then tried to persuade Nana to want to use the service again the flight. And it gets Worse, the company they want worked Nowhere in collaboration with Lion Air. And they want both are required to fly using Lion Air. 

Social Judgement Theory popularized by Muzafer Sheriff. This theory contains the message That was Quickly after We Hear We then place in accordance with the scale of behavior in our minds. According to Sheriff Muzafer, after receiving the message, We immediately sort out the messages, Which will be addressed immediately and which are delayed. 

According to Sheriff, he saw changes in attitude or response after receiving the message into three zones, namely:

1. Latitude of Acceptance

This zone contains a person's attitude after receiving a message containing a statement about something. Attitude Is the attitude shown to the perception is yes.

Example: Responding to the offer from Lion Air, Joe course IMMEDIATELY Accepted. Because he did not experience a bad thing lion with water in its past.

2. Latitude of Rejection

This zone contains an attitude That indicates rejection of the opinions Received by an objective point of view.

Examples: Unlike Nana, based on experience with Lion Air accident, then he will of reject the offer.

3. Latitude of Non commitment

This zone is formed containing the message and nonchalantly if objectional Can not be Accepted.

Ego-Involvement

Ego-involvement or ego involvement refers to issues as Important as whether or presumption of a in Our Lives. With knowing ego involvement. Can We know how big the persuasive message to be delivered.

Defining Serif Some ego involvement. Among Them;

a. Highly ego involvement

The type of people WHO have excessive anxiety, resulting in difficulty to the persuasive.

Example: Nana is a victim of the Same Trust airline accident years ago. So the mindset Kuncoro on Lion Air is too negative, so he too imagined doing That rejection. That so persuasive shown high levels.

b. Moderate ego involvement

The type of person WHO still has a little positive thinking Easier for the persuasive

Example: Joe in this case have a low ego involvement. Although he watched the news about China Trust Lion Air accident years ago, but when Lion Air Lion Air said that the management has undergone many changes. So with Joe easily believe it will from.

Sheriff defines the high ego-involvement or high ego involvement is a form of membership in a group with a membership Known booth or in a group with a high level of understanding. We have to understand the relationship Between the ego-involvement with the latitude of acceptance, rejection, and non commitment with a view to appreciating the role of one's mental theory of social judgments Happens after when someone Finds a warning from the Received message.

There are two stages of the process of persuasion by the sheriff, the first process occurs when a person received or heard any direct messages and then evaluate it and Put Themselves in accordance with its position to respond to the message or judgments Called Part (assessment phase ). The second phase, an adjust its behavior according to the message obtained.

Judging The Message

That Sheriff claims We use to compare the behavior of points when hear messages are inconsistent with our previous assumptions. Sheriff pointed out That there are differences in the contrast response when someone receives a message the word "hot." Some people DESCRIBE the word is not equal to the fire, but many WHO think the word is meant Sheriff provides an Illustration of the idea of a Relationship Between the perception of ego involvement. People with high commitment has Latitude of rejection is high. All Will Be perceived by messages on their dating is more inconsistent with on their Perceptions.

To assess the perception of a message there are two, namely contrast and assimilation. Contrast is the perceptual distortion That initiated the confrontation of ideas. Assimilation Is The Opposite of valuation errors. The process of assimilation occurs when a message to the latitude of acceptance. People say the person is Experiencing assimilation has undergone a paradigm shift (Because the persuasive influence of a given), but not change its behavior, for example, when Nana was given the Lion That explanation has been Experiencing management changes and believe That he Might agree. But he will from not necessarily change on their behavior to want to use the airline Lion Air.

Incompatibility and behavior change

If Someone gets a message That is incompatible with the original perception of the possibility is open May-person giving A Different meaning in the message. These reactions include behavioral changes in May tau changes in outlook or what was assumed as Previously. Securities are Called boomerang effect.

Example:

Nana WHO originally did not believe in the management of Lion Air, after obtaining concrete evidence then it will from turn out to be believe in Lion Air.

Relational Dialectics Theory (By Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery)

There are three approaches, namely: 

1. Monologist Approach 

That is an approach looked at the relation of contradiction That Framed one of conflict.

2. Dualistic approach

That is an approach saw a contradiction separately

3. Dialectical approach

That is a viewpoint maintains two polar opposites.

Case in point:

Joe and Nana Were lovers, they want had a relationship ever since junior high. That They Had planned one day they want will from work together in a company. But Things did not go according to Expectations. Nana changed from Marketing Managed marketing at the company while Joe only be OB at the company. Finally, a Gap Between the employment relationships Joe and Nana.

Can be concluded That the RDT is reviewing the relational That life is characterized by tension Between the Feelings That contradict Each other.

Assumptions:

There are four basic assumptions in RDT Assessing relational life. Among Them:

1. Relationships are not linear.

Relationships in the RDT viewed as a relationship consisting of fluctuation Between Desires contradictory, and note the parts That are linear.

2. Characterized by the existence of associated life changes.

According to Baxter and Montgomery's view, the process or change a relationship refers to the qualitative and quantitative movement over time and the contradictions occur in living related That. One's relationship right now, with A Few months ago Experienced That the changes are not linear.

3. Contradiction is a fundamental fact of life related.

That assumes RDT contradictions are an inevitable fact of life related. RDT so it wants to maintain the existing contradictions in life and trying to reconcile related.

4. Communication is very Important in Managing and Negotiating the contradictions in the relationship.

In the show a contradiction, one needs to Communicate. Social reality of the contradictions Produced and reproduced by the communication action by social actors. Communication Can be verbal and non-verbal.

Dialectics has Which Some basic elements of the dialectical perspective, Which Are Mutation

a. Totality

Between interdependence Totality To benefit the people in a relationship. In this case people needed and an interdependent relationship with Each other. If there is a change in Someone, it will from have an impact on others.

b. Contradiction (Contradiction)

The main Characteristic of dialectic approach refers to the mutually contradictory oppositions (contradict). This is the main feature dialectic approach.

c. Movement (motion)

Refers to the process of a relationship over time. Movement refers to the nature of the proceedings in a relationship.

d. Praxis (praxis)

Man Is the decision maker, although not entirely a free choice. In other words, praxis refers to the human capacity to choose.

Dialectic Association.

Consisting of interaction dialectic and contextual. 

Interaction Dialectic represents the tensions That Arise from Life Itself relate .. There are three kinds of interaction dialectic. Among Them:

a. Autonomy and attachment.

A tension That shows our Desires to be conflicting or changed from much closer.

b. Openness and self-protection.

Tension related to an Important That shows our conflicting Desires say for us and to keep it secret.

c. New Things and Things That Can Be Predicted.

Relate the importance of tension in the shows wishes to have the stability relate conflicting.

Contextual Dialectic These relationships is emerging from within the culture. Dialectic Contextual consists of two kinds:

a. Public and private Dialectic

contextual dialectic is generated from personal relationships and public life.

b. Dialectic real and ideal

Is contextual dialectic resulting from differences in the Relationship Between the ideal and real relationships in life.

Response to Relational Dialectic Theory

This section studies how individuals Cope with the due-existing retail contradict contradictions relate is life. According to Jameson (2004) politeness is one way to resolve the dialectical tension. While Baxter (1988) Identified four strategies to address the dialectical tensions; cyclical substitution, segmentation, selection, and integration

Substitution of cyclic (Cyclic alternation)

Occurs when people choose one of two Opposite Things at certain times, and replaced by another star at another time. Is so with cyclical turns in response to dialectical tensions That refers to changes over time.

Segmentation (segmentation)

Separating the arena to reduce the difference of the two contradict Things Each other. Segmentation refers to the changes a result of a context.

Selection (selection)

Give a decision against two Things Which contradict Each other. Selection refers on giving priority to the existing oppositions.

Integration (Integration)

Involves the synthesis of the two Things That opposite. The integration consists of:

Neutralize (neutralizing)

Individual try this way to select one of the best among the two polar contradict Each other. This response refers in Compromise to the two opposition

Repeat frame (re framing)

In this way individuals attempt to transform the existing will of dialectic certain way, making it the second opposition seemed not contradict Each other again conflicting.

Disqualify (Disqualifying)

Response was trying to neutralize dialectic by giving exemptions on Some issues from the general pattern.

Interactional View

Interactional theory is a theory which is proposed by Watzlawick, basically he had proposed five axioms or rules established in a communications system. 

• Axiom 1: One Can not Not Communicate (one can not not communicate).

Although we do not communicate, but without we realize that communication is present in the message indirectly.

• Axiom 2: Human beings Both Communicate Digitally and Analogically (Humans communicate both digitally and analogically).

Humans communicate both digital and analogue. According to Watzlawick, this problem arises when our digital communications of non-verbal label analogically to act on behalf of our inner feelings. What is spoken is different from what he thought. 

• Axiom 3: Communication = Content Relationship (communication = item relationships).

This axiom will try to distinguish between the actual message (content) and how to say (the relationship). The overall result is a communication, itself.

• Axiom 4: The Nature Of A Relationship Depends on How Both Parties Punctuate the Communication Sequence (The nature of a relationship depends on how both parties to explain the sequence of communication).

• Axiom 5: All Communication is Either Symmetrical or Complementary (All communication is one of symmetrical or complementary).

See the basic axiom of power that emerged in the communication. Symmetrical communication occurs when the same power in the relationship. Complementary communication is when there are differences in the level of power in relationships.

Listen

Self Disclosure

Self-disclosure is a process of opening information about yourself to others who have a goal. Typically, the information available at the opening of the information itself is significant. For example, express that you love to play the guitar may not be so important: to open more personal information, such as that you are a Christian and support life or anti abortion, may significantly affect the evolution of a relationship.

Case study:

One day a transfer student named Nana met with a friend - a new friend at school. He was acquainted with her schoolmate Joe. As a new student Nana wants to build a good relationship with Joe. Somehow, Nana Joe eager to tell that he really missed her former lover. However, he considered whether it deserves to be told at the time of first encounter. In addition, he did not want to be perceived as a sissy girl. Nana was puzzled to disclose the problem to Joe.

If we try to refer to the Social Penetration Theory Process according to Altman and Taylor's intimate relationship is not moving toward an intimate relationship because of the self-disclosure. This process allows people to know each other in a relationship. The opening self-help form relationships present and future between two people and make yourself open to other people provide intrinsic satisfaction. Nana understood that he was a transfer student at his school and as freshmen he did not want to damage the image of himself at that time by telling his personal problems. It actually can be solved by social penetration, which requires an "overlap of information will be gradual and self-exploration, respectively - each party involved in a relationship", by Nana to open himself and told the problem to Joe. So also should be conducted by Joe is willing to open up and thinking of Nana. So the relationship between Nana and Joe could well maintained.

The opening of self or self-disclosure can be both strategic and non-strategic. The point in some relationships, we tend to plan what will we say to others. In certain circumstances, opening ourselves may occur spontaneously. Opening itself spontaneously is widely grown in our society.

Organization Information Theory

Key concepts and conceptualize information

Weick Organization Information Theory contains a number of key concepts is very important in understanding this theory. These concepts include environmental information, unclear information, rules, and cycles. Each concept will be explained in detail.

Environmental Information: Number of Total

Environmental information is a core concept in understanding how the organization is formed and also how they process information. So, we are faced with selecting tasks or important information means and focusing our senses to process these signs. Availability of all environmental stimuli are considered as information [information environtment]. Organization composed of information vital to their formation and continues to be essential to its existence.

In essence, the organization has two main tasks that must be implemented to successfully manage the various sources of information: [1] They have to interpret the external information contained in their information environment, and [2] they must coordinate information to make it meaningful to the members organization and organizational goals. This interpretation process requires organizations to reduce uncertainty or ambiguity makes it more meaningful information.

The ambiguity of Information: Are You Sure About That It?

The fact that much of the information received is ambiguous organization is the main thing of the Organization of Information Theory. Weick stresses that the challenges of an organization rather than from the fact that he has too little information but from the fact that he received a huge amount of information that potentially led to many interpretations [Weick, 1995]. The main purpose of an organization is to give meaning to the environment informastion and try to develop a plan of action so that its members can achieve their goals.

Richard Daft and Robert Lengel [1984] introduced the concept of "wealth of information" to describe the number of inputs faced by the organization. They stressed that the new media has enabled the organization to access vast amounts of information, but then members of organizations are faced with the task to reduce the messages into a form that will assist them in achieving their goals.

To be successful in processing information, organizations must engage in a series of behaviors in which the complexity of business communication equivalent to the obscurity of the message. This is referred to as the requisite variety, or the process involved in the complex behavior of the same communication with the message itself. To interpret the information that is ambiguous, is also very complex communication needs. If the information easily understood by some members of the organization, then the only communication required is not so complex. Weick summarizes the thinking of requisite variety by stating, "It takes vagueness to eliminate ambiguity" [1969 pp. 40]. Research note describes a study which explores the ambiguity more information.

Rules: Guidelines for Analyzing

Weick [1979] propose two important communication strategy, if the organization hopes to reduce the vagueness of the message. The first strategy requires the organization to determine the rules to reduce the level of uncertainty of input messages and also to select an appropriate response to information received. In the Organization Information Theory, rules [rule] refers to the guidelines established by the company to analyze the uncertainty of a message both to guide responses to the information.

Weick gives examples of rules that can cause an organization to choose a cycle or feedback information than others to reduce the vagueness of the message. These rules include the duration, personal, and business success. The duration of an organization's rules which states that decisions must be made in connection with vagueness in the shortest time. Personnel is an organization rule which states that workers who are most aware of the problems must be overcome obscurity. The success of an organization's rules which states that the plan is successful in the past will be used to reduce the current uncertainty. While business is a rule which states that organizations in connection with the vagueness decisions must be made with minimum effort.

Cycle: Action, Response, Adjustment

Cycle is a series of communication behavior that serves to reduce uncertainty. The action is a communication behavior that indicates a person ambiguities in the received message.

The second step in the cycle of communication is the response. Response was defined as a reaction to action. That is, a response to seek clarification of unclear message appeared as a result of the action. As a result of the response, the organization to formulate a response as a result of the adjustment [adjustment] that have been made to the information originally received. Feedback is an important step in the process of understanding the information received. Weick uses the term to describe a set of double interaction cycle of action, response, and adjustment in the exchange of information. Interaction circuit double [double interacting loops] refers to the communication cycles that are used to assist member organizations in reducing the uncertainty of information.

The ambiguity principles

Organizations using the three principles when faced with uncertainty. First, an organization must analyze the relationship between the obscurity of the information, the rules of the organization to eliminate ambiguity, and the cycle of communication that should be used. When analyzing the relationship between these three variables, and keeping a possible conclusion. If a message is not clear, chances are this organization has a few rules to resolve ambiguities. As a result, organizations should use more of the communication cycle to reduce the level of clarity of information. Organization will examine the level of uncertainty of information [input] the receipt and determine whether it has adequate rules that can help in guiding the communication cycle that must be used to reduce ambiguity.

The second principle proposed by Weick [1979] relating to the association between the number of rules required and the number of cycles that can be used to reduce uncertainty. If the organization only has a few rules to help themselves in reducing uncertainty, more is needed to filter cycle ambiguity.

The third principle stated by Weick related to the direct relationship between the number of cycles used and the amount of uncertainty remains. The more cycles that are used to obtain additional information and make adjustments, the more uncertainty is removed. Weick states that if the number of cycles that are used more and more, will be more likely if the uncertainty can be reduced compared to if only a few cycles of use.

Social Penetration Theory (Based on the Research Daltman Irwin and Dalmas Taylor)

To understand the proximity relationship between two people, Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor [1973] concept a Penetration Theory Social [Social Penetration Theory-SPT]. Both made extensive studies in an area of social ties on various types of couples. Their theory describes a pattern of relationship development, a process which they identify as social penetration. Social penetration [social penetration] refers to a bonding process in which the relationship of individuals to move from superficial communication toward a more intimate communication.

Altman and Taylor believed that the relationship of people vary greatly in their social penetration. These authors stated that the relationship follows a route [trajectory], or the path to intimacy. Furthermore, they say that the relationship is regular and predictable in its development. Because the relationship is something important and "already exists in the heart of our humanity" [Rogers & Escudero, 2004, pp. 3], The Social Penetration theorist trying to decipher the complexity and predictability of the continuing of a relationship.

Preliminary discussions regarding the Social Penetration Theory began in the 1960s and 1970s era in which open up and speak frankly regarded as an important strategic relationship. Now, researchers have recognized that cultures vary in respect of openness as a skill in dealing, and some question the culture of the early enthusiasm for openness in general relationship [Stafford, 2003].

Assumption of Social Penetration Theory

Assumptions that drive returns, among others:

• These relationships do not progress from an intimate be intimate.

• In general, the development of systematic and predictable relationship.

• The development of the relationship include depenetration[withdrawal] and dissolution.

• Opening of the self is the core of the development of relationships.

First, the relationship of communication between the people began in superficial stages and moves on a continuum towards a more intimate stage. However, not all relationships are located at both extremes are not intimate and intimate. Even many of our relationships lies at a point between the two poles.

The second assumption of the Social Penetration Theory related to predictability. In particular, the penetration of social theorists argue that the relationships developed in a systematic and predictable. Some people may have difficulties to accept this claim. Relationship-as-communication process is dynamic and constantly changing, but even a dynamic relationship and follow the standard pattern of development is acceptable.

The third assumption related tax returns with the expectation that developments include depenetration and relationship dissolution. At first, the second this might sound weird. So far we have discussed the intersection of a relationship. However, the relationship can be messy, or withdraw [depenetrate], and this setback could lead to dissolution of relationships. If a relationship has depenetration, it does not mean that the relationship will automatically be lost or expired. Often times, a relationship will experience transgressions [transgression], or violations of rules, implementation, and expectations in touch. This transgression may seem can be solved and often it is. In fact, Tara Emmers-Sommer [2003] stated that various transgressions relationships can assist in the failure of a relationship.

Last assumption states that the opening itself is the essence of the development of relationships. Opening myself [self-disclosure] can be generally defined as the process of opening information about yourself to others who have a goal. Typically, the information is in the opening itself is the information significant. According to Altman and Taylor [1973], intimate relationships that are not moving toward an intimate relationship because of the self-disclosure. This process allows people to know each other in a relationship. Opening ourselves to help shape the relationship of the present and future between the two men, and "make yourself open to others who provide intrinsic satisfaction."

Finally, we must see that the opening of the self can be both strategic and non-strategic. Researchers have used the term, "the phenomenon of foreigners in the train [Strangers-on-the-train]" [or in the plane or bus] to refer to the time when people disclose information on a complete stranger in public areas.

"Peeling" Layer Connection: Onion Analogy

In disguising of SPT, Altman and Taylor put onion skin structure. The outermost layer is the public image of [the public image of] a person, or which can be seen directly. Reciprocity [reciprocity] or process in which the openness of others will lead others to open, is the main component of the Social Penetration Theory. Penetration can be viewed by using two dimensions: breadth and depth. Breadth refers to the various topics discussed in a relationship. Vastness of time associated with the amount of time spent by couples in communicating with each other on various topics. Depth refers to the degree of intimacy that directs the discussion into a topic.

Several important conclusions to be noted about the breadth and depth of the opening of the self. First, shifts or changes in the central layer of [the onion] have more influence than those in the outer layer. Second, the greater the depth, the more opportunity for someone to feel vulnerable.

Social exchange: Costs and Benefits of touch

Taylor and Altman [1987] argues that the relationship can be conceptualized in the form of respect and sacrifice. The award is all kind of events or relationship behaviors that drive satisfaction, pleasure, and happiness in the pairs, while the sacrifices are all related events or behaviors that encourage the emergence of negative feelings. Valuation ratios awards / sacrifice [of reward / cost ratio] is defined as the relationship experience that the balance between positive and negative.

Stages of the Social Penetration Process

The earliest stage of interaction, referred to as the orientation phase, occurred on a public level, only a little about ourselves open to others. Orientation phase is the social penetration levels that include the opening of a little part of us.

The fourth and final stage, exchange stability, achieved in a few relationships. Stage of stable exchange associated with the disclosure of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that lead to the emergence of openly spontaneity and uniqueness of the relationship is high.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Based on the Research of Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese)

Uncertainty reduction theory was pioneered by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese in 1975. The aim is to explain how communication is used to reduce uncertainty among foreign people involved in conversations with each other for the first time.

The latest version suggests that there are two types of uncertainty from the beginning of the experiment: cognitive and behavioral. Cognitive refers to the beliefs and attitudes that we and others have adopted, the level of uncertainty associated with these beliefs and attitudes. Uncertainty on the other hand the behavior is "" ... limits to which the behavior can be predicted in a given situation.

Berger and Calabrese argued that the reduction of uncertainty has both a proactive and reproactive process. Proactive reduction of uncertainty occurs when a person thinks about communication choices before actually doing it with others. Reduction of uncertainty reproactive business in itself about what is said and done and her own reaction is part of the process reproactive.

In addition to Berger and Calabrese stated that the uncertainties associated with the seven other concepts rooted in the communication and relationship development: verbal output, nonverbal warmth, information search, opening themselves, opening themselves reciprocity, equality and joy. Cooperate with each other concepts so that participants can reduce some of their uncertainty.

Assumptions

Assumption of uncertainty reduction theory

1. People experiencing the uncertainty in the setting of interpersonal

2. Uncertainty is an unpleasant situation, cognitively stressful.

Three. When strangers meet, their primary concern is to reduce uncertainty or improve their predictability.

4. Interpersonal communication is a developmental process that occurs through the stages.

5. Interpersonal communication is the main tool for reducing uncertainty.

6. The quantity and nature of the information shared by the people will change over time.

7. It is perfectly possible to predict the behavior of people using the legal way.

Axiom

Uncertainty reduction theory

Axiom 1

Given the high degree of uncertainty that at the beginning of the early phase, when the amount of verbal communication between two strangers increased, the level of uncertainty for each participant in a relationship will decline. If declined, verbal communication increases. It declared an inverse or negative relationship between uncertainty and verbal communication.

Axiom 2:

When the expression of affiliate nonverbal increased, decreased level of uncertainty in initial interaction situations. Besides decreasing the level of uncertainty would lead to increased levels of affiliate nonverbal expressiveness.

Axiom 3:

High levels of uncertainty result in increased information search behavior. If declined, the level of information search also declined. This shows the positive relationship the two relationships.

Axiom 4:

High level of uncertainty in a relationship expressed Tertiary intimacy of communication. Low levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy. This shows a negative relationship between uncertainty and the intimacy.

Axiom 5:

High levels of uncertainty produce high levels of resipriotas, and otherwise. Occurs a positive relationship.

Axiom 6:

The similarities between people would reduce uncertainty, or otherwise. said that a positive relationship.

Axiom 7:

Increasing the level of uncertainty will result in a decrease in preference, or otherwise. Shown a negative relationship.

Axiom 8:

The uncertainty is negatively associated with interaction in social networks. More and more social relations then the less uncertainty.

Axiom 9:

There is an inverse relationship between uncertainty with communication satisfaction.

Strategy

In attempting to reduce uncertainty of what is done is

1. passive strategy in which one takes the role of observers who do not bother other people.

2. active strategy arises when an observer make a business directly attributable to know about the others.

Three. interactive strategy occurs when the observer and the observed person directly concerned.






Reference uncertainty reduction theory:

Turner, L.H., & West, R. L. 2008. Pengantar Teori Komunikasi: Analisis dan Aplikasi. Jakarta: Salemba Humanika.

Elaboration likelihood model

John Cacioppo and Richard Petty

Elaboration likelihood model is a theory put forward by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo. This theory provides an effective way to persuade someone or cause changes in attitude or behavior. This theory is talking about the cognitive processes performed by humans in interpreting the message. How to categorize people to interpret the message from a process of communication they receive. To then determine the attitudes and take action.

Elaboration likelihood model describes the mental attitude of humans in processing the messages they received in the communication process, how a person focus on the message and the attributes contained in it.

This theory is based on the paradigm of positivism, which the researchers use quantitative methods that use survey and analysis in developing this theory. Based on the assumption that there is, then this theory to analyze the existing sections to understand the whole of its parts. Elaboration likelihood model is a theory that includes the perspective of an objective which is used to understand, explain, and predict human behavior. Petty and Cacioppo assume that humans will tend to hold on to the correct attitude to life. Sometimes it does not seem logical, but in reality we are always trying to find the truth.

Of the four issues contained in the epistemology, Elaboration likelihood Model including the knowledge gained after the experience. The point is, this theory emerged after the research and observations in the survey and analysis of existing realities in society.

This theory includes the theory of absolutism, because this theory was formed based on a survey done in the community. Consist of quantitative data and calculation of exact science. So that the deficiencies in this theory due to the emergence of new phenomena today. Not because of wrong theories that have been established. ELM including rationalism theory which views human beings as objects of research.

ELM is a theory that describes the character of man as a reactor that makes a stimulus with the intention of making changes in attitudes and behavior. This theory describes the process of persuasive for interpreting a message, how much work is done to influence others in their affective and personal so interested in the issues discussed and also how the message recipient to think about the contents and truth of the issue receives.

This theory states that communication between people is a process whereby each person receive, transmit, interpret and conclude a message with stimulant. When someone has shown a tendency to think about the contents of the message, then the next issue is whether they can respond to the contents of the message. We would find it difficult to persuade people around him when things do not support or that person is not ready to receive the messages we convey. From this theory can be seen that human beings are controlled by the state. In the process, this theory led to changes in attitudes that are permanent and long, sovereign, when observed from the central route.

Elaboration likelihood model is the theory that value free. This theory is intended to reveal what it is, in accordance with the existing facts about the incident. A communicant must be able to convey his message with the most effective manner. ELM can be classified as classical science because this theory is intended to uncover the facts are.

Concept

1. Elaboration

An activity to evaluate and verify the message. In this case, that process occurs when a person thinks about an argument she was on about in persuasive communication.

2. Central Route

Is the main point in interpreting the message. At this point, the processing of messages requires great mental effort because the audience did elaboration of the received message.

Three. Peripheral Route

Offers a shortcut to accept or reject a message. In this pathway, the recipient of the message does not require such precision in the central route, because they only accept and reject the message without looking at the attribute or other purposes which are also contained in the message. Audience only depends on a number of cues that allow them to make decisions in a short time.

There are six signals that trigger the use of peripheral route, include the following:

a. Reciprocation: There is a feeling indebted to persuade people.

b. Consistency: There is a feeling that what is common to be persuaded.

c. Social Proof: There is evidence to be persuaded because the message has been carried out by the crowd.

d. Liking: We liked the ideas we persuade people.

e. Authority: There's interest to persuade the power of the people so as not to bias the choice.

f Scarcity: There is concern that the offer does not come twice.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Leon Festinger

Cognition is a way of knowing, beliefs, judgments, thoughts. Dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling that motivates a person to take steps to reduce these uncomfortable feelings (an imbalance), while the consonant means balance

Leon Festinger (1957:4) calls this feeling of imbalance "cognitive dissonance" or the nonconformity of understanding, these are feelings that people have when they "find their own an act which did not fit with what they know, or have any opinions that do not match opinions of others. "This concept formed the core of the CDT or understanding of the theory by Festinger inconsistency, a theory that denies that the discrepancy in an unhappy or uneasy feelings that motivate or encourage men to take steps to reduce them.

Incompatibility is the designation for the imbalances and adjustment is the designation for the balance. According to Roger Browns, CDT has two elements with three different relationships to each other, including the following:

1. Relationships consonants: 2 element positioned at one another balanced

Example: we learn with high performance index.

2. Dissonant relationship: two elements in the imbalance

Example: the person who approved the abortion Catholic.

Three. Relationship irrelevant: two elements are not related one another

Example: women and equal rights in the workplace.

Assumption CDT

a. Humans have a desire for consistency in beliefs, attitudes, and behavior.

b. Dissonance created by psychological inconsistencies (Brown),.

c. Dissonance is a feeling not like to encourage people to perform actions with measurable impact.

d. Dissonance will encourage businesses to obtain a consonant and an attempt to reduce dissonance.

Hypothesis Three: How To Reduce Dissonance Between Attitudes and Action

a. Selective Exposure

reduce the importance of dissonant beliefs.

b. Post decision Dissonance

adding consonant beliefs.

c. Minimal justification

produce more dissonance and require more changes to reduce them.

Level Dissonance

a. Level of interest: refers to how significant a problem. Level of interest is proportional to the level of dissonance

b. Dissonance ratio: the number of consonant cognition compared with dissonant. If the ratio is at a balanced position, it will be less experienced dissonance

c. Rationality: refers to the reasons suggested to explain the inconsistencies. The more a person is not able to explain the reason of the conduct, the greater the dissonance that is felt.

Social Learning Theories

Albert Bandura

A. Bandura proposed social learning theory emphasizes that environmental conditions can provide and maintain certain responses in a person. The basic assumption of this theory is largely derived from the individual behavior through observational learning outcomes of the behavior displayed by other individuals who became a model.

Bandura also states that people learn many behaviors through imitation, even without reinforcement [reinforcement] even though they received. We can mimic some behaviors only through observation of model behavior and the resulting effect of these models. This kind of learning process called observational learning or learning through observation. During the course of observational learning, someone tried to do the behavior he saw and reinforcement / punishment serves as a source of information for someone about their behavior.

Social Learning Theories to explain how a person's personality is developed through a process of observation, in which people learn through observation or observing the behavior of others, especially leaders or persons who are regarded as having more value than others. The term is well known in social learning theory is modeling [imitation].

Modeling is more than just imitation or repeating the behavior but the model and modeling involves the addition or subtraction of the observed behavior, as well as observations generalize observations involve cognitive processes. Modelling carried out through four processes, namely: attention, representation, imitation behavior, and motivation and reinforcement.

Attention is influenced by association with those observers who observed [model]. The nature of the model, and the significance of the observed behavior. Representation means that the behavior will be imitated is symbolized in the memory. In imitation of behavior, the observer must have the ability to mimic the observed behavior of the model. This modeling can be effective if people are watching has a high motivation to imitate the observed figures.

One important concept presented Bandura is the reciprocal determinism, a person will behave in a situation that he was select actively. In analyzing the behavior of someone, there are three components that should be reviewed is the individual [P: Person], environmental [E: Environment], as well as the individuals behavior [B: Behavior]. Individuals will bring up a form of the same behavior despite similar environments, but the individual will act after a process of cognition or assessment of the environmental stimulus that will be followed up.

Bandura states that cognition is as an intermediary behavior in which our self-perception affects behavior.

Self Efficacy is a person's perception about his ability in the face of a situation. Two components of self efficacy are:

1. Outcome Expectations

Are estimates of individuals that a particular outcome will occur and knowledge about what to do.

2. Efficacy Expectations

It is the belief that he could do it or not. Emphasized that self efficacy is very influential in behavior. Any behavior, could the behavior at work, academia, recreation, social efficacy is influenced by the self. Expectancy is the cognitive variables in the relationship between stimulus and response. Outcome expectancy is the anticipation of a systematic relationship between events or objects in a situation. The form is the "if-then" between behavior and outcome. Failure of an event followed the form of "if-then" that existed in the mindset of individuals, so if the expectations of individuals are too high and can not be achieved, these individuals will be more prone to disruption because of the inconvenience he experienced.

Self regulation is the ability of individuals to regulate their own behavior and assessment of the internal standard for himself. This concept explains why humans can maintain their behavior despite the absence of rewards that come from the external environment. This concept can not be run without internal standards of a person.

Internal standards is thought to come from the influence of previous modeling and a variety of reinforcement ago. Given the meaning of certain phenomena that he thinks is good or valuable, then these values become the benchmark of internal values the individual. The higher a person internal standard, the greater hope for achieving this value and the greater the likelihood the individual is experiencing disturbances.

Traits

Traits are aspects or dimensions of personality characteristics associated with response or reaction to someone who is relatively consistent (steady) in order to adapt themselves uniquely. Interpreted also as a learned tendency to react stimulation from the environment. These traits serve to integrate the habits, attitudes, and skills to the patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. While the concept of self serves to integrate psychologies capacities and initiative activities.

Traits are basically trying to explain how you communicate at any time depending on your character in a situation where you as an individual and valid as your own self. can be interpreted as. There are three examples of traits, among others, as follows:

a. Conversational narcissism

Expert conversational narcissism tend to pump their own interests by behavior such as "One-upping" or bragging. They tend to want to control the flow of conversation, especially to provide opportunities for them to talk about themselves. In addition, they are also known to often use non-verbal language, they are known as people who like to show off skills as an example behavior exaggerating gestures, and they tend to be unable to feel or do not want to listen to others.

b. Disputatious

A debate can enhance learning, help people to see others' viewpoints, enhance credibility, and build communication skills. Not all those who vehemently denied. Dominic distinguish between the debates that are positive, aggressive and hostile verbal which is negative. Of course, knowing how to argue well is probably a good solution rather than aggressive.

c. Communication Apprehension

All people may have stage fright at all times, but the nature of communication Apprehension is a chronic tendency in communicating. Communication Apprehension in pathological / health, where individuals suffer from extreme communication and very scared. Communication Apprehension abnormally high could create serious personal problems, including extreme anxiety and avoidance of communication, with the aim of preventing a productive and voluntary involvement in (the) community.

Each has three characteristic traits, these characteristics include the following:

a. Uniqueness: peculiarities in behavior.

b. Likableness: that the trait was there that liked and there is no groove, for traits that contribute to the harmony or lack of harmony, satisfaction or dissatisfaction of people who have these traits. Traits are favored such as honest, generous, and responsible, while unwelcome, such as: selfish, rude, and cruel / ruthless. One's attitude toward these traits are the result of learning their social environment.

c. Consistency: it means that an individual might be expected to behave or act steadily.

Traits in its development is also influenced by heredity and learning. The most influencing factor is (a) the upbringing of parents, and (b) the imitation of children to people who became his idol. Some trait learned by trial and error, meaning that children learn more by chance, such as aggressive behavior in react frustrating. For example: the child was crying and breaking dishes, because they do not buy a toy robot that he wanted. If the act aggressively, parents finally bought a toy the child wants, then the child will tend to repeat these actions. Children also learn to understand that the traits or certain basic properties of highly respected (respected) by all cultural groups are universal, such as: honesty, respect for the rights of others, and appreciative attitude.

Uses, Gratification and Dependency

Uses, gratification and dependency based on research results from Elihu Katz, Jay. Blumler and Michael Gurevitch. This theory is a theory which states that people actively seek out specific media and content (content) to produce the satisfaction of certain (or any) specific.

Mass Society Theory states that the average person is helpless victims of the mass media, to define the relationship between the audience and the media they consume.

Then, Theory of Mass Society was replaced by what we now refer to as "Limited Influence Theory" (limited effect) which is the conception of media influence is limited by certain aspects of personal and social life of members of the audience. There are two approaches on the orientation of limited influence, first, the individual differences perspective (individual differences perspective), which saw the power of the media shaped by personal factors like intelligence and self-esteem. Examples of smart people and people who established the one who is able to defend themselves against the unwanted effects of the media. Limited influence of the latter, the model of social categories (social categories model) who saw the power of media is limited by the audience member associations and affiliated groups. For example, the republican party tends to spend time with people of other republics, which help them interpret media messages consistently, according to the way a republic.

Stages in the research uses and gratifications

• Herta Herzog (1944) began the early stages of research uses and gratification by trying to divide the reasons people do different forms of media behavior such as reading newspapers and listening to the radio.

• Phase two of the uses and gratifications research began when researchers began creating a typology which represents all the reasons people have for using the media.

• The third stage and most recently, uses and gratifications researchers interested in linking specific reasons for media use by variables such as needs, goals, benefits, and consequences of using the media, and individual factors. Rubin and Steph to investigate the relationship of motivation, interpersonal attraction, and parasosial interaction, we think the relationship we have with the people who we know is only through the media.

Assumptions of uses and gratification theory

 The public plays an active and goal-oriented media usage.

 initiative in linking the needs of specific media choices have on members of the audience.

 Media compete with other sources for the satisfaction of needs.

 People will have enough self-awareness of their media use, interest and motive in order to provide an accurate picture about the usefulness to researchers.

 Assessment of the value of media content can only be judged by the audience.

Active audience

The theory is based on the assumption that media consumers are active should explain what is said as "active audience."

Jay G. Blumer (1979) also offers some suggestions of activities can be carried out by the audience of media consumers. These include the usefulness (utility) to use the media to accomplish specific tasks. Intention (intentionality) occurs when the motivation of people to determine their consumption of media content. Selectivity, namely that the audience uses the media to reflect their reference interest. The difficulty to affect states that audience to form their own understanding of content and that affects the meaning of what they think and do.

Uses and gratification also distinguish between activity and liveliness to better understand levels of audiences activities. Activity (activity) is more referring to what is being done by the consumers of media. While the liveliness (activeness) is closer to what is right - right researchers interested in the uses and gratification, freedom and autonomy of the public in situations of mass communication.

Media influence

 social situation can produce tensions and conflicts, led to pressure to alleviate this through media consumption.

 social situations can generate awareness of the issues that require attention, information about what can be found in the media.

 social situation may undermine the real life opportunity to satisfy certain requirements, and the media can be a substitute or supplement.

 social situation often led to a particular value, and affirmation as well as their emphasis can be facilitated by the consumption of media related materials.

 social situation demands friendliness with the media; these demands must be met to maintain membership in a particular social group.

Functionality and Gratuity and New Media

The question for researchers is whether the Uses and Gratification motivation that brought people to use their old media would apply to new media. Theorists interested in finding new media and experiences that change the message so the theory of uses and gratification is no longer applicable or should be radically modified. Access to new technologies change and expand our capabilities for acquisition of information and entertainment, and media researchers requiring a deeper understanding about personal and social reasons people have for using new media.

The findings on social interaction in particular is interesting because this kind of game is often assumed as something isolated and less social presence. Sherry and colleagues, found that teenagers play video games with his friend and saw this game as a time to gather and connect with other people.






Reference the effect tradition and uses, gratification & dependency:

Littlejohn, Stephen W and Karen A.Foss. 2008. Theories of Human Communication. USA : Thomson Wadsworth

West, Richard. 2007. Inroducing Communication Theory, Analysis and Application. Singapore : McGraw-Hill Book Co.